Aryan expansion
In the Rig-Vedic period the Aryan tribes had spread over the whole country from the Kabul to the upper Ganges, and had built up small kingdoms. Stately cities made their appearances for the first time in the later Vedic period.
Before the close of the later Vedic period, the Aryans had thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by the Jumna, the upper Ganges and the Rapti or the Gandak. Adventurous bands penetrated into the Vindhya forest and established powerful kingdoms in the Deccan to the north of the Godavari.
The centre of the Aryan world was the ‘firm middle country’ stretching from the Sarasvati to the Gangetic Doab and occupied by the Kurus, the Panchalas and some adjoining tribes. The swamps east of the Gandak colonised by the Videhas, and to the valley of the Wardha occupied by the Vidarbhas. Beyond them lived the tribes of mixed origin like the Angas of East Bihar and the Magadhas of South Bihar.
The most distinguished among the tribes of the period were at first the Kurus and the Panchalas with their capitals at Asandivat and Kampila respectively. The former occupied Kurukshetra—the tongue of land between the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati—as well as the districts of Delhi and Meerut. The latter occupied the Bareilly, Budaun and Farrukhabad districts of the United Provinces and some adjoining tracts. The Kuru nation was probably formed by the amalgamation of several smaller tribes including a section of the Purus.
The later Vedic texts mention powerful Kuru kings like Balhika-Pratipiya, Parikshit and Janamejaya, all of whom figure prominently in epic legends.
The Panchalas also produced conquering kings who engaged in wars and alliances with the Kurus.
In the time of the Upanishads the fame of the land of the Panchalas as a centre of Brahmanical learning was eclipsed by the country of the Videhas, whose king Janaka, won the proud title of Samrat.
Growth of Royal Power and Elaboration of the Administrative Machinery
The amalgamation of tribes and the increase in the size of kingdoms in the later Vedic age, coupled with the successful leadership of the kings in war, inevitably led to a growth in the royal power. Kings now claimed to be absolute masters of all their subjects.
The chief functions of the king were of a military and judicial character. He was the protector of his people and the laws, and the destroyer of their enemies.
Successful monarchs set up claims to the rank of universal king lord of all the earth or sole ruler of the land down to the seas, and celebrated sacrifices befitting their status like the Rajaysuya, the Vajapeya and Asvamedha.
While the kings of the middle country were generally content with the title of raja, The eastern kings were styled Samrat, the southerners Bhoja, those in the west Svarat, while the rulers of the northern realms (janapadas) were called Virat.
The king was usually, though not invariably, a Kshatriya. The office of monarch now, as before, was normally hereditary. Choice seems to have been generally limited to members of the royal family.
Social changes
Little change can be tranced in the mode of house-building and the style of dress. In regard to dietary, the eating of meat was being looked upon with disfavour. Now forms of social entertainment had come into existence.
In regard to the position of women, there was hardly any improvement. Daughters were regarded as a source of misery. Women could not go to the tribal council or assembly, neither could they take an inheritance. Married women of the upper classes had often to suffer the presence of rival wives. The rules of marriage underwent a change towards greater rigidity, and there were instances of child marriage.
As regards class distinction, changes of far-reaching importance were taking place. Different modes of address were laid down for the four castes. Change of caste was becoming difficult, if not impossible. The life of a member of the higher castes was now rigidly regulated. The power and prestige of the Brahmanas had increased immensely. The Brahmana claim to supremacy was now and then contested by the Kshatriya.
Economic condition
The people, including even men of wealth, still lived mostly in villages, but the amenities of city life were no longer unknown.
Agriculture continued to be one of the principal occupations of the people. Considerable improvement was effects in agricultural implements, and new kinds of grains and fruit trees were grown on the soil. Trade and industry flourished. A class of hereditary merchants came into being. Commerce was facilitated by the use of convenient units of value like the nishka.
The variety of industrial occupations was remarkable. Specialisation had gone far. The chariot-maker was distinguished from the carpenter, the maker of the bows from the maker of the bow-strings and arrows, the tanner from the hide-dresser or furrier. Women took part in industrial life as makers of embroidered garments, workers in thorns, dyers, etc.
Religious development
Side by side with Rudra arose another figure—Vishnu, a solar deity. Vishnu soon came to occupy the place of Varuna as the most sublime among the celestials and his highest step became the goal of sages and seers. Before the final close of the Vedic canon, he came to be identified with Vasudeva—a hero or demi-god known to epic tradition as Krishna Devakiputra.
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