For nearly twenty years the Carnatic—the name given by the Europeans to the Coromandel Coast and its hinterland—became the scene of a long-drawn contest between the French and the English, which led to the ultimate overthrow of the French power in India.
In order to understand fully the nature of the struggle, we have to keep in view not only the position of the English and French Companies in India and the relations of the two nations in Europe, but also the prevailing political conditions in the Deccan and the somewhat uncertain relationship subsisting between the English and French merchants on the one hand and the local Indian powers on the other. All these important factors shaped the course of events as they developed from a petty struggle for privileges of trade into a bold bid for the empire of the Mughuls.
I Carnatic War
As has already been noted, Madras and Pondicherry were the chief trading stations of the English and the French on the Coromandel Coast. Each of these was a fortified city with about 500 Europeans and 25,000 Indians. The English also possessed in addition the Fort of St. David, a little to the south of Pondicherry. All three cities were situated on the sea-coast and depended for their safety and fresh supplies of resources from home upon the command of the sea.
In 1740 England was involved in a European war. England and France took opposite sides and fought in the Netherlands for a period of nearly eight years.
The outbreak of war between England and France also placed the two mercantile Companies in India technically in a state of war.
Hostilities were opened by the capture of French ships by the English navy the French Governor of Pondicherry sent an urgent appeal to the governor of Mauritius, to come to his rescue. After a great deal of difficulty the latter equipped a squadron and reached the Indian seas with eight ships of the line.
The arrival of French ships changed the course of the war. The commander of the English ships was either unwilling or unable to engage in a serious contest with the French and sailed to Hugli leaving the whole Madras surrendered.
For the time being the success of the French seemed complete and their material gains and increase in prestige seemed to exceed their highest ambitions.
But the overwhelming success brought in its train discord and disunion. The first effect of this was the failure of Dupleix to take Fort St. David in spite of a prolonged siege of eighteen months. In June, 1748, a large squadron was sent out from England to avenge the capture of Madras, and now the English in their turn besieged Pondicherry, both by land and sea. Fortune again smiled on Dupleix. Pondicherry was saved by the lack of military skill of the besieging army. The after a Treaty, Madras was restored to the English.
II Carnatic War
Outwardly the two parties were left by the Treaty exactly where they were before, but events soon proved that the situation had really changed a great deal.
The war had illustrated the great importance of sea-power. The French power was practically limited to the Carnatic, whereas the English had important settlements both in Bombay and Bengal. In any struggle for supremacy the French would therefore be at a great disadvantage. The chances of ultimate success of the French against the English appeared thus to be very small indeed.
Any other person would have been dismayed by these sombre prospects. But the genius of Dupleix shone forth and suggested to him the only way out of the difficulty. Fortune favoured him, and placed before him a unique opportunity to worm out his new policy.
Dupleix was eagerly waiting for a situation lie this. He concluded a secret treaty with Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jang with a view to placing them on the thrones of the Carnatic and the Deccan respectively.
The English could not fail to realise the great danger which threatened them, but they lacked the energy of Dupleix. So far, things had gone admirably for the French, and Dupleix’s policy triumphed beyond his most sanguine expectations.
In the meantime events were marching rapidly in the north. Robert Clive, a civilian employee in Madras, had lately joined the army. He proposed an expedition against Arcot.
The capture of Arcot was the most remarkable achievement of the war. This daring exploit at once enchanced the reputation of the English as a fighting power and gave a crushing blow to the prestige of the French.
Dupleix’s high hopes were now dashed to the ground.
French authorities at home were thoroughly tired of Dupleix and decided to recall him. They sent Godeheu to investigate the local conditions and take proper measures to retrieve the situation. Godeheu landed on 1st August, 1754, superseded Dupleix, and reversed his policy. He opened negotiations with the English and concluded a treaty. The English and the French both agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of the native princes and each party was left in possession of the territories which it actually occupied at the time of the treaty.
Thus the French lost almost everything that Dupleix had gained for them.
British success in Bengal
The British leaders knew the situation in Bengal well enough, and, having experienced the force of the Nawab’s arms, they sough to retrieve their position by exploiting the internal situation. After the fall of Calcutta, they had taken refuge in Fulta, and from this place they carried on intrigues with the leading persons whom they knew to be hostile to the Nawab. The attempts of Shaukat Jang to seize the throne opened up new hopes to them. They sent him a letter with presents hoping he might defeat Sirajuddaulah. When that hope failed they won over the their cause Manikchand, the officer in charge of Calcutta, Omichand, a rich merchant of the city, Jagat Seth, the famous banker, and other leading men of the Nawab’s court. At the same time they made appeals to the Nawab to restore their old privileges of trade in Calcutta. This appeal, backed by the support of the interested advisers, induced the Nawab to consent to an accommodation with the English.
In the meantime warlike preparations were being made by the Madras Council. As soon as they received the news of the capture of Calcutta, they decided upon sending a large military expedition. Fortunately, a fully equipped army and navy which had been made ready for an expedition against the French were immediately available. After some discussion it was resolved to send the expedition under Clive and Admiral Watson. The expedition set sail on 16th October and reached Bengal on 14th December. The Nawab was evidently quite ignorant of this. Clive and Watson arrived at Fulta with the force from Madras. It is only fair to not that the English at Fulta were perhaps equally ignorant of the help sent from Madras, and did their very best of induce Clive to desist from warlike operations against the Nawab, who was ready to concede their reasonable demands. But Clive and Watson paid no heed. Clive marched towards Calcutta. Manikchand made a pretence of war and then fled to Murshidabad. Clive recovered Calcutta on 2nd January, 1757, without any serious fighting. The English then plundered Hugli and destroyed many magnificent houses in that city.
Even after these provocations, Sirajuddaulah came to Calcutta and concluded the Treaty of Alinagar (9th February, 1757), conceding to the English practically all their demands. This pacific attitude of Sirajuddaulah, offering such a strange contrast to his earlier policy, is difficult to explain.
Whatever may be the right explanation, it is quite clear that from this time onward Sirajuddaulah displayed a lack of energy and decision at almost every step.
Battle of Plassey
Now the English leaders were bent upon replacing Sirajuddaulah by a Nawab more amenable to their control. A conspiracy was set on foot with the help of the disaffected chiefs, and it was ultimately resolved to place Mir Jafar upon the throne of Bengal. Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh, the two generals of the Nawab, as well as Jagat Seth, the rich banker, all joined in the plot.
The Nawab displayed a lamentable lack of decision and energy in this critical moment. After having drawn upon himself he failed to act vigorously. Had the Nawab promptly imprisoned Mir Jafar, the other conspirators would have been struck with terror and the plot might perhaps have come to nothing. The Nawab’s courage, however, failed. Far from taking any energetic measures, he himself paid a visit to Mir Jafar and made pathetic appeals to him. Mir Jafar gave him most solemn assurances of support and the Nawab was apparently satisfied. He hastily began to make preparations for the war, with Mir Jafar as commander of his forces.
Three days before the English forces had left Calcutta on their expedition against the Nawab. So thoroughly did treachery pervade all ranks of the Nawab’s army, that little or no real opposition was offered to the English even by the garrisons at Hugli or Katwah. On the night of 22nd June Clive reached the mango grove of Plassey, on the bank of the Bhagirathi, where the Nawab was already entrenched with his troops.
The battle broke out on the morning of the 23rd June. On the Nawab’s side Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh stood still with their large armies, and only a small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan backed by a French officer, took part in the battle. Had Mir Jafar loyally fought for the Nawab the English force might have easily been routed. Even the small advance party made the situation too critical for the English. After half an hour’s fighting Clive withdrew his forces behind the trees. At 11 o’clock he consulted his officers. It was resolved to maintain the cannonade during the day and to attack the Nawab’s camp at midnight. Unfortunately a stray shot killed Mir Madan and this so unnerved the Nawab that he sent for Mir Jafar and accepted his treacherous advice to recall the only troops which were fighting for him.
Sirajuddaula reached Murshidabad on the morning of the 24th. The news of his defeat created the utmost panic and confusion in the city. He made an effort to collect his forces, but both men and officers fled in all directions. In vain did he lavish considerable treasures to induce the troops to stand by him, and then, finding no other way, his fled with his wife and one trusted servant.
Mir Jafar reached Murshidabad on the 25th and Clive followed him a few days later. Mir Jafar was proclaimed Subedar of Bengal. In a few days news arrived of the capture of Sirajuddaula. He was brought back to the capital and immediately murdered by the orders of Miran, the son of Mir Jafar. Thus the treacherous conspiracy of Mir Jafar was brought to a triumphant conclusion.
Sirajuddaula, has been regarded by some as a martyr and by others as a monster of iniquity. There is as little justification for the one as for the other view. He was not much worse than most rulers of his age, and certainly better than Mir Jafar, Nawazish Muhammad or Shaukat Jang. In he first few months of his reign he showed undoubted ability and vigour, but lack of energy and decision was the prime cause of his ruin. There is also hardly any doubt that the conspiracy that cost him his life and throne was at least partially due to his personality and character.
Lastly, the conspiracy of Mir Jafar and others has been regarded as the Great Betrayal of the country by her unpatriotic sons.
III Carnatic War
The peace which was established in the Carnatic by the treaty of Godeheu was again broken by the Seven Years’ War. The news of the outbreak of the war reached India in November, 1756, and one of its immediate effects was the capture of Chandrnagore—a French possession in Bengal by Clive and Watson.
In Madras, however, neither the English nor the French possessed enough military resources to commences hostilities at once. The major part of the military and naval forces of Madras had been sent under Clive and Watson to recover Calcutta. The French resources were similarly crippled.
So it was not until A.D. 1758 that warlike operations began on a large scale. The English fleet returned from Bengal under the command of Peacock who had succeeded Watson. The French receive reinforcements from home and Count de Lally was sent to conduct the war.
Lally began splendidly. He besieged Fort St. David on 1st May and the place capitulated on 2nd June. He now wisely decided to strike at the root of the British power in the Carnatic by reducing Madras. Lally, no doubt, possessed a high degree of military skill, but he was too hasty and ill-tempered to co-ordinate the different parts of the war machine.
He besieged Madras on 14th December. But the siege of Madras was marked by defects. It dragged on till 16th February, 1759, when the British fleet reappeared, and Lally immediately raised the siege. This ignoble failure practically sealed the fate of the French in India.
The next twelve months completed the debacle. Lally had taken a very unwise step in recalling Bussy from Hyderabad and leaving the French troops there under incompetent commanders. Clive took this opportunity to send an army from Bengal.
In the Carnatic also the English took the aggressive. They were at first defeated near Conjeeveram, but the French could not follow up their success.
At the end of October, the able General Coote arrived in Madras with his troops and the English resumed the offensive. The French army was totally routed and their fate was decided once for all.
In course of three months the French lost everything in the Carnatic save Jini and Pondicherry. The English then laid siege to Pondicherry.
Reduced to the last desperate strait, Lally hoped to retrieve the French position by an alliance with Haider Ali, then at the helm of affairs in Mysore. The idea was well conceived but led to no practical result. Haider sent a contingent to the aid of the French, but the allies were not able to concert any military plan which held out a chance of success against the English. Thereupon Haider’s contingent returned to Mysore, leaving Lally to his fate.
Pondicherry was closely blockaded both by land and sea. Lally lacked sufficient funds to maintain his army. At last the inevitable took place, and on 16th January, 1761, Pondicherry made an unconditional surrender. The victors ruthlessly destroyed not merely the fortifications, but also the city itself.
The surrender of Pondicherry was followed shortly by that of Jinji and Mahe, a French settlement on the Malabar coast. The French thus lost all their possessions in India, but these were restored to them by the Treaty of Paris (1763).
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