Another civilisation had its principal home higher up the Indus valley. The people who evolved this culture called themselves Aryans. Unfortunately, the early literature of the Aryas—called the Veda—cannot be dated even approximately, and it is impossible to say with absolute precision in what chronological relation the civilisation portrayed in the Veda stood to the ‘Indus’ culture of the third millennium B.C. Max Muller hesitatingly placed the beginning of the Vedic literature in the latter half of the second millennium B.C. Tilak on the other hand, tried to push the date much farther back on astronomical grounds.
The internal conflicts of the Aryans were their struggles with the non-aryans, which gradually led to a considerable extension of the Aryan dominion towards the east.
The geographical area eventually occupied by the Rig-Vedic tribes is clearly indicated by the mention of certain rivers which permit of easy identification. The mention of these rivers implies the possession by the Aryans of a considerable portion of the country stretching from eastern Afghanistan to the upper valley of the Ganges. The major part of this area came to be known as Sapta Sindhu—the Land of the Seven Rivers. The whole of this extensive tract of land could not have been occupied entirely by Aryan tribes.
Social life
The foundation of the political and social structure in the Rig-Vedic age were the family. The members of a family lived in the same house. Houses in this age were presumably built of wood or reed. In every house there was a fireplace besides a sitting-room and apartments for the ladies. The master of the house was called grihapti or dampati.
Families being patrilineals, people prayed for abundance of sons. The birth of daughters was not desire, but once born they were treated with kindness and consideration. Their education was not neglected. Girls were given in marriage when they attained full development. Marriage for love as well as for money was known. Weddings were celebrated in the house of the bride’s parents. Remarriage of widows was permitted. Women were not independent persons in the eye of the law, and had to look to their male relations for aid and support. Their position in the household was one of honour. The term dampati is sometimes used to designate the mistress as well as the master of the house. The wife participated in the religious offerings of the husband and was the queen of his home.
Particular attention was paid to dress and adornment. The clothes were of different hues and were made of cotton, deer skin or wool. Garments were often embroidered with gold. The use of gold ornaments and of floral wreaths was common, especially on festive occasions. Both the sexes wore turbans.
Drinking water was obtained not only from rivers and springs but also from artificial wells from which it was raised by a wheel of stone and poured into buckets of wood.
The favourite amusements of the more virile classes were racing, hunting and the war-dance. The chariot-race was extremely popular and formed an important element of the sacrifice celebrated in later times as the Vajapeya. No less popular was hunting. The animals hunted were the lion, the elephant, the wild boar, the buffalo, and deer. Birds also were hunted. Another favourite pastime was dicing. Among other amusements, mention may be made of boxing, dancing and music. Women in particular loved to display their skill in dancing and singing.
When a man died, he was either cremated or buried. The burning of widows does not appear to have been prevalent.
Economic life
The Rig-Vedic Aryans were mostly scattered in villages. The word nagara (city) does not occur in the hymns. We find indeed mention of purs which were occasionally of considerable size and were sometimes made of stone or of iron. Some were furnished with a hundred walls.
Regarding the organisation of the village we have a few details.
Agriculture was the principal occupation of the village folk. Cultivated fields were known as Kshetra. They were often watered by irrigation canals. The use of manure was also known. The grain grown on the soil was styled dhana or yava. In later times they meant rice and barely. When ripe, they were cut with a sickle, tied in bundles and threshed on the floor of the granary.
The rearing of cattle and other domestic animals was scarcely less important that agriculture. Cows were held in much esteem, and milk formed an important part of the dietary in the Vedic household. Herds of cattle were daily led to the pasture by the gopa (cowherd). The valley of the Yamuna was especially famous for its wealth of kine.
Other useful animals were the draught-ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep. The land of Gandhara were famous for their wool.
Though mainly an agricultural and pastoral people, the Vedic tribes were not indifferent to trade and industry. The chief articles of trade, judging by the evidence of the later Samhitas were clothes, coverlets and skins. The standard unit of value was the cow, but necklets of gold (nishka) also served as a means of exchange. No gold coin of the old indigenous type has yet been discovered in India.
The principal means of transport by land were chariots (ratha) and wagons, the former usually drawn by horses and the latter by oxen.
Writing was no doubt practised by the pre-historic people of the Indus valley who developed the ancient culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, but it is significant that the early literature of the Aryans was transmitted orally.
Architecture made some advance in Rig-Vedic India. There are references to mansions supported by a thousand columns and provided with a thousand doors. Mention in also made of some castle and structures with a hundred walls.
The medical art of the age distinguished quite a number of diseases. But the physician was still a friend-slayer as well as a healer of disease, and charms and spells were regarded as equally efficacious with healing herbs and drugs. The use of iron legs as a substitute for natural ones points, however, to some advance in surgery. the science of astronomy made definite progress, and certain stars had already been observed and named.
The early Vedic religion has been designated by the name of henotheism—a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as the highest.
Indra came to occupy the chief place among the Vedic gods, while Varuna receded to the background and became merely the Lord of Waters.
Sacrifices occupy a prominent place in the Vedic ritual. These include offerings of milk, grain, ghee, flesh and juice of the Soma plant.
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