The history of India from A.D. 1526 to 1556 is mainly the story of the Mughul-Afghan contest for supremacy in this land. Infact, there were three phases in the history of the Mughul conquest of India. The first phase (1526-1530) was occupied with the subjugation of the Afghans and the Rajputs under Rana Sanga. The second phase (1530-1540) commenced with the reign of Humayun, who made unsuccessful attempts and was expelled from India by Sher Shah, which meant the revival of the Afghan power. The third phase (1545-1556) was marked by the restoration of the Mughul dominion by Humayun and its consolidation by Akbar.
Babur
Babar, a Turk, was descended on his father’s side from Taimur, and was connected on his mother’s side with Chengiz Khan.
Babar occupied Kabul in 1504 A.D. but opportunity to advance towards Hindustan came to Babur when he was invited to India by a discontented party.
Babur had for some time been cherishing the ambition of invading Hindustan. He at once responded to the invitation, entered the Punjab and occupied Lahore in 1524. But his Indian confederates, soon realised their mistake. When they saw that Babur had no desire to give up his Indian conquests, they turned against him. This compelled Babur to retire to Kabul, where he began to collect reinforcements with a view to striking once again.
The blow was not long in coming. He marched from Kabul in November, 1525, occupied the Punjab, and compelled Daulat Khan Lodi to submit. The more difficult task of conquering Delhi, which was certainly within the horizon of Babur’s ambition, was still to be accomplished. So he proceeded against Ibrahim Lodi, and met him on the historic field of Panipat on the 21st April, 1526. Babar quickly occupied Delhi and Agra.
But the Mughul conquest of Hindustan was not an accomplished fact as a result of Babar’s victory over Ibrahim.
Rana Sanga, the hero of Rajput national revival, was certainly a more formidable adversary than Ibrahim. He marched with the rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer, and Chanderi, and Sultan Mahmud Lodi (another son of Sultan Sikandar Lodi), whom Rana Sanga had acknowledged as the ruler of Delhi joined him.
The Mughuls and the Indians met in a decisive contest at Khanwa on the 16th March, 1527. The Rajputs fought with desperate valour, but Babur, by using similar tactics as at Panipat, triumphed over them. The defeat of the Rajputs was complete. The Rana escaped with the help of some of his followers, but died broken-hearted after about two years. Babur followed up his success at Khanwa by crossing the Jumna and storming the fortress of Chandri, in spite of the gallant opposition of the Rajputs.
The battle of Khanwa is certainly one of the decisive battles of Indian history. In a sense, its results were more significant than those of the first battle of Panipat. It destroyed the chance of political revival of the Rajputs. Even Sher Shah had to reckon with Rajput hostility. But the temporary eclipse of the Rajputs after Khanwa facilitated Babur’s task in India and made possible the foundation of a new foreign rule.
But Babur was not destined to enjoy for long the fruits of his hard-won victories. He died at Agra at the age of forty-seven on the 26th December, 1530.
During the four years that Babur spent in Hindustan, the Punjab, the territory covered by the modern United Provinces, and North Bihar, were conquered by him, and the leading Rajput state of Mewar also submitted to him. He occupies an important place in the history of India, as he was the first architect to lay the foundation stone of the edifice of the Mughul Empire in India.
Humayun
Three days after the death of Babur, Humayun ascended the throne of Hindustan at the age of twenty-three. The situation at his accession was not indeed a very easy one. He was confronted with several hostile forces on all sides, disguised and so the more dangerous. There was hardly any unity in the royal family.
A ruler, possessed of military genius, diplomatic skill, and political wisdom, was the need of the hour. But Humayun lacked all the these. In fact, he himself proved to be his worst enemy.
Fortune, however, favoured Hamayun in his early wars, before the hostile forces had grown uncontrollable. He gained a decisive victory over the Afghans and drove out Sultan Mahmud Lodi from Jaunpur. He besieged Chunar, than held by the Afghan chief Sher Khan, but soon abandoned it.
The next stage in Humayun’s career was marked by his ill-fated conflicts with Sher Shah, the champion of Afghan revival.
Sher Shah Suri
Babur’s victories did not result in the complete annihilation of the Afghan chiefs. They were seething with discontent against the newly founded alien rule, and only needed the guidance. This they got in Sher Khan, who effected the revival of the Afghan power and established a glorious, thought short, regime in India by ousting the newly established Mughul authority.
His master conferred on him the title of Sher Khan for his having shown gallantry by killing a tiger single-handed.
But perverse destiny again went against Sher. His enemies poisoned his master’s mind against him, and he was deprived of his father’s jagir. He now joined Babur’s camp, where he remained from April, 1527, to June, 1528.
Humayun, who was then whiling away his time in idleness and festivities was disconcerted on hearing of Sher’s. He was opposed by Sher Khan and his Afghan followers and suffered a heavy defeat in June, 1539. Most of the Mughul soldiers were drowned or captured; and the life of their unlucky ruler was saved by a water-carrier.
The victory over the sovereign of Delhi widened the limit of Sher Shah’s ambition.
Sher Shah next turned his attention against the Rajputs of the west, who had not yet recovered fully from the blow of Khanwa. After this success, Sher Shah reduced to submission the whole region from Ajmer to Abu and marched to besiege the fort of Kalinjar. He succeeded in capturing the fort, but died from an accidental explosion of gunpowder on the 22nd May, 1545.
A brave warrior and a successful conqueror, Sher Shah was the architect of a brilliant administrative system. His brief reign of five years was marked by the introduction of wise and salutary changes in every conceivable branch of administration.
Sher Shah’s land revenue reforms, based on wise and humane principles, have unique importance in the administrative history of India.
For the purpose of imperial defence, as well as for the convenience of the people, Sher Shah connected the important places of his kingdom by a chain of excellent roads. The longest of these, the Grand Trunk Road, which still survives.
Sher Shah had a strong sense of justice, and its administration under him was even-handed, no distinction being made between the high and the low, and not even the near relatives of the King being spared.
Sher Shah is indeed a striking personality in the history of Medieval India. By virtue of sheer merit and ability he rose from a very humble position to be the leader of Afghan revival, and one of the greatest rulers that India had produced.
Restoration of the Mughuls
After the death of Sher Shah disturbed situation encouraged Humayun to attempt the restoration of his lost dominion after about fifteen years. He had been wandering from place to place in search of shelter and help. He went to Amarkot, the Hindu chief of which Rana Prasad by name, had promised help. It was here that his son Akbar was born on the 23rd November, 1542.
Humayun marched in November, 1554, to reconquer Hindustan. In February, 1555, he captured Lahore. He occupied Delhi and Agra in the month of July of the same year. Thus by a favourable turn of fortune, Humayun succeeded in recovering a part of what he had lost through his own weakness and indecision. But he did not live long enough to show if adversity had produced any wholesome effect on his character. He died on the 24th January, 1556, in consequence of an accidental fall from the staircase of his library at Delhi.
Akbar
Akbar, who was then in the Punjab with his guardian Bairam, an old comrade of his father, was formally proclaimed on the 14th February, 1556, at the age of thirteen, as the successor of Humayun. But the Mughul supremacy over Hindustan was still far from being assured.
Conquests and Annexations
A strong imperialist by instinct, Akbar followed a policy of conquest for the expansion of his empire until the capture of Asirgarh in January, 1601.
But Mewar did not bow its head in obedience to the Mughul Emperor. It offended him by giving shelter to Baz Bahadur, the fugitive ruler of Malwa. Its independence was, howsoever, galling to Akbar, who cherished the ideal of an all-India empire. The ambitious design of Akbar was facilitated by the prevalence of internal discord in Mewar, following the death of Rana Sanga, and by the weakness of Udai Singh, the unworthy son of a noble sire.
Struck with terror at the fall of Chittor, the other Rajput chiefs, who had so long defied Akbar, submitted to him.
Rana Pratap
Thus, one by one, the Rajput chiefs acknowledged Mughul sway, but Mewar still refused to own it. Udai Singh retained his independence though he had lost his ancestral capital. After his death on the 3rd March, 1572, Mewar found a true patriot and leader in his son Pratap, who, being in every respect faithful to the traditions of his country, offered uncompromising resistance to the invaders. The inevitable imperial invasion of his territory took place in April, 1576, under a body of troops commanded by Man Singh and Asaf Khan, and a furious battle was fought at the pass of Haldighati. Pratap was defeated, and barely escaped with his life. Mounted on his beloved horse Chetak, the Rana betook himself to the hills, and his strongholds were captured by his enemies one by one. Pratap’s is indeed an inspiring personality in Indian history. Amar Singh, Pratap’s son tried to carry out the behest of his father but was attacked by a Mughul army under Man Singh in 1559 and was defeated after a gallant resistance. After annexing Ranthambhor and Kalinjar in A.D. 1569, the Mughuls subjugated Gujarat.
The more important province of Bengal was next conquered by the Mughuls.
Having thus consolidated his authority over Northern and Central India, Akbar decided to extend his sovereignty to the Deccan.
The Deccan Sultanates were not in a position to defend themselves against the onrush of Mughul imperialism. Ahmadnagar was besieged by it in 1595. The city was defended with splendid courage and extraordinary resolution by Chand Bibi.
Having organised the newly-conquered territories into three subas of Ahmadnagar, Berar and Khandesh, Akbar returned to Agra in May, 1601, to deal with the rebellious Salim.
The last days of Akbar
The last days of Akbar were rendered unhappy by grief and anguish. In eagerness to seize the throne, Salim set himself up as an independent king at Allahabad and entered into intrigues with the Portuguese to achieve his end. The other sons of Akbar had already died. Salim was the only surviving son of Akbar. Akbar was attacked by severe diarrhoea in the autumn of 1605 and died on the 17th October.
From start to finish, from ascending the pulpit at Fatehpur Sikri to the propagation of Din-i-Ilahi, Akbar was intensely sincere.
An intrepid soldier, a benevolent and wise ruler, a man of enlightened ideas, and a sound judge of character, Akbar occupies a unique position in the history of India. His manners were exceedingly charming and his address pleasant, for which he has been highly praised by all who came in contact with him. He was able to win the love and reverence of his subjects.
Though Akbar probably did not learn how to read and write, he was not uncultured. He maintained a library full of books on various subjects.
Though ambitious of territorial conquests, through which the limits of the Mughul Empire were extended almost to the furthest limits of Northern India, Akbar was not a selfish and unbridled autocrat. He did not ignore the feelings of the conquered and trample on their rights and privileges with an eye only to self-interest.
Akbar tried to introduce humane social reforms. He was a patron of art and literature. From all points of view his reign forms one of the most brilliant periods in the history of India.
Jahangir
A week after Akbar’s death, Salim succeeded to the throne at Agra at the age of thirty-six and assumed the title of Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Pad Shah Ghazi. Though fond of pleasure he was not absolutely devoid of military ambition.
The early pleasant dreams of Jahangir were soon rudely disturbed by the rebellion of his eldest son, Khusro, whose relations with his father had been far from friendly since the closing years of Akbar’s reign. Enjoying the kindness and favour of his grandfather, Khusro was the most popular prince in the Empire, having many influential supporters like his maternal uncle, Man singh. Five months after Jahangir’s accession, he left Agra, fled to the Punjab and rose in rebellion. Jahangir marched without delay against his son with a large army. The Prince’s troops were easily defeated by the imperial forces near Jullundur. He was brought before his father with his hands bound and a chain on his leg in open darbar, and after being severely reproached was ordered to be imprisoned.
The fifth sikh Guru, Arjan Dev, was sentenced to death, and all his property was confiscated by the Emperor. Apparently the charge against him was that he had helped the rebel prince Khusro with a sum of money. The execution of the Sikh divine was an impolitic step on the part of Jahangir, as it estranged the Sikhs, till then a peace-loving community, and turned them into foes of the Empire.
In May, 1611, Jahangir married Nur Jahan, originally known as Mehhrunisa, who considerably influenced his career and reign.
The early part of Jahangir’s reign witnessed some important military successes. The political power of the Afghans, so long opposed to the Mughuls, came to an end, and Jahangir’s conciliatory policy made them henceforth friendly to the Empire.
The most distinguished triumph of Mughul imperialism during the reign of Jahangir was its victory over the Rajputs of Mewar, who had so long defied its might. Amar Singh of Mewar was compelled to negotiate for peace. The Rana and his son Karan submitted to the Mughuls and recognised the authority of the Empire.
A notable military success of Jahangir’s reign was the capture of the strong fortress of Kangra in the hills of the north-eastern Punjab on the 16th November, 1620. But this event, in which Jahangir found cause for exultation, was quickly followed by disasters and rebellions which had no end till he closed his eyes for ever.
The first serious disaster for the Empire was the loss of Qandahar. The huge preparations of Jahangir for the recapture of Qandahar were in vain, as his son Shah Jahan, whom he ordered to lead the expedition, apprehending that his absence from the capital would be utlised by Nur Jahan to prejudice his claims to the throne did not move. Alienated by the intrigues of Nur Jahan, Shah Jahan soon rose in rebellion against his father.
Shah Jahan, joined by the aged officer Abdur Rahim Khan Khana, at first intended to march on Agra, but an imperial army completely defeated him at Balochpur, south of Delhi, in 1623. He was chased from province to province and met with repeated reverses. He was finally reconciled to his father in 1625. His sons, Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb, were sent to the imperial court, probably to serve as hostages for his good behaviour; and he retired to Nasik with his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, a niece of Nur Jahan, and his youngest son, Murad. Thus ended the futile rebellion of Shah Jahan, with no gain for him but with ample damage to the Empire. Jahangir is a complex personality in Indian history. He was famous for justice. His reign saw the beginning of a new intercourse between Europe and India.
Possessed of a fine aesthetic taste, and himself a painter, Jahangir was a patron of art and literature and a lover of nature.
Shah Jahan
The death of Jahangir was followed by a short period of struggle for succession to the throne. Shah Jahan was still in the Deccan when his father died in October, 1627, and though two of his brothers had already expired, there was another, Prince Shaharyar, with a position of advantage in the north. At the instance of his mother-in-law, Nur Jahan, Shaharyar lost not time in proclaiming himself Emperor in Lahore. But Shah Jahan’s cause was ably served by Asaf Khan, father of Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan hurried to Agra from the Deccan and was proclaimed Emperor in the metropolis in February, 1628. Shah Jahan managed to remove all his possible rivals out of the world. He lived to see two of his sons executed, a third driven out of the country. He himself spent his last days as a captive.
For the time being, however, everything went in the Emperor’s favour. He began his reign with profound optimism and success.
Shah Jahan and the deccan states
Shah Jahan resumed the traditional policy of expansion in the south, the whole of which had not been, thoroughly subdued by Akbar. The Emperor left the Deccan on the 11th July, 1636, and sent his third son, Aurangzeb, then a youth of eighteen, as viceroy of the Mughul Deccan. It also contained sixty-four hill forts, some of which were still in the possession of Shahji and other hostile chiefs.
The young viceroy compelled Shahji to submit to him and surrender certain forts. In 1637 he went to Agra to marry Dilras Banu Begam. But Aurangzeb was much embarrassed the influence of a hostile party under his brother, Dara Shikoh. In 1644 he proceeded to Agra to see his favourite sister, Jahanara. But three weeks after his arrival at Agra, Aurangzeb was forced by adverse circumstances to resign his post.
Shah Jahan’s last days were made highly tragic by the outbreak of a terrible war of succession among his sons. It broke out as soon as he fell ill in September, 1657, and subjected the old Emperor to extreme humiliation and agony till his exit from this world. Shah Jahan had four sons, all of mature age at that time—Dara Shikoh aged 43, Shuja aged 41, Aurangzeb aged 39, and Murad aged 33—and two daughters, Jahanara, who sided with Dara Shikoh, and Raushanara, who joined the party of Aurangzeb. The eldest of them, Dara Shikoh, was in the confidence of his father, who desired him to be his successor. A man of eclectic views, liberal disposition, and of scholarly instincts, he caused a Persian version of the Atharva Veda and the Upanishads.
Dara Shikoh alone of the four brothers was present at Agra when Shah Jahan fell ill in September, 1657.
The battle of Samugarh practically decided the issue in the succession was among the sons of Shah Jahan. The discomfiture of Dara, with the loss of many of his soldiers, made it easier for Aurangzeb to realise his ambition. Soon after this victory he marched to Agra and seized the fort there on the 8th June.
Placed under strict confinement as an ordinary prisoner Shah Jahan was denied even the common convenience. Aurangzeb turned a deaf ear to all requests of the Emperor for reconciliation. He was in company of his pious daughter, Jahanara, till at last death, at the age of seventy-four, on the 22nd January, 1666, relieved him of all his miseries.
From Agra Aurangzeb started towards Delhi on the 13th June, 1658 and on the 21st July, 1658, he crowned himself as Emperor.
The reign of Shah Jahan is usually considered to have been the golden period of Mughul rule in India, which then reached its climax. There was no serious challenge to the Emperor’s authority before the war of succession. No grave external menance threatened India itself. The period saw the development of the export trade between India and Western Asia and the beginning of the export trade with Europe. It was also marked by pomp and splendour, which were amply attested by brilliant productions in architecture, like the magnificent Taj, the Pearl Mosque of Agra, the Diwan-i-Am, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Jama Masjid and the celebrated Peacock Throne.
Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb’s remarkable reign of fifty years can be naturally divided into two equal parts, each having its own well-defined features distinguishing it from the other. During the first part that is from 1658 to 1681, the north remained the centre of interest and of all important developments, civil and military, while the south figured as a far-off and negligible factor. But in the second half of the reign the centre of political gravity shifted from Northern India to the Deccan, where the Emperor went in 1681 with his family, his court and the bulk of his army, and the administration of the north was consequently neglected, plunging the whole of it into disorder and anarchy. The Emperor was able to crush the Muslim Sultanates of Bijapur and Golkunda, but in his struggle with the nascent nationalism of the Marathas, the issue remained undecided. The Deccan expeditions produced disastrous consequences for the Empire, and the long reign of Aurangzeb, in spite of his wonderful industry and splendid devotion to duty, culminated in tragedy.
He was twice enthroned—once on the 21st July, 1658, immediately after his occupation of Agra, and again with great pomp in June, 1659. After his decisive victories orthodoxy against the liberal Dara, he tried to enforce strictly the Qurance law, according to which it behaves every pious Muslim to exert himself in the path of God.
Aurangzeb personally practised what he sought to enforce on others. His private life was marked by a high standard of morality, and he scrupulously abstained from the common vices of his time. He passed an ordinance prohibiting the production, sale and public use of wine and bhang. The Emperor also burning of faggots and processions during certain religious festivals.
The Emperor, however, did not rest satisfied with these regulations only. The year 1679 saw the reimposition of the jaziya tax on unbelievers.
Reaction against the new policy
The first serious outbreak of anti-imperial reaction took place among the Jats of the Mathura district.
The second armed protest against Aurangzeb’s policy was led by the Bundela prince, Chhatrasal.
Another revolt occurred in March, 1672, among the Satnamis, who were originally an inoffensive sect of Hindu devotees.
The new imperial policy caused discontent among the Sikhs also.
Guru Tegbahadur protested against certain measures of the Emperor and encouraged the Brahmans of Kashmir to resist. This was too much for Aurangzeb to tolerate. He caused the Sikh guru to be arrested and brought over to Delhi, where he was offered the choice between death and conversion. Tegbhadur preferred his faith to his life and was executed after five days (A.D. 1675). Thus he gave his head but not his faith. The martyrdom of the Guru Tegbhadur inspired the Sikhs with feelings of revenge against the Mughul Empire and made an open war inevitable.
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