Biotechnology deals with the use of living organisms or substances obtained from living organisms in industries to get useful products. It is comparatively a new branch which includes biology and technology.
Usefulness of Biotechnology
(i) Alcoholic Drinks : Wine, whisky, beer etc. are prepared by biotechnological methods.
(ii) Dairy Products : Curd, cheese, butter etc. are prepared by biotechnological micro-organisms.
(iii) Sewage Treatment : Bacteria, algae are used to remove organic matter from sewage.
(iv) Biofertilizers : Nitrogen fixing bacteria is used for the fertility of soil.
(v) Enzymes : Enzymes are produced by the methods of biotechnology for industrial uses.
(vi) Hormones : Hormones are produced by using microbes. Insulin, growth hormones are produced by using biotechnology.
(vii) Vitamins : Several vitamins like B2, B12 etc. are produced by using biotechnology.
(viii) Antibiotics : Many antibiotics are produced by using biotechnology.
(ix) Vaccines : Vaccines used for the production of immunity are produced by using biotechnology.
Branches of Biotechnology
Bio-Engineering : The application of engineering knowledge to the fields of medicine and biology to assist defective body functions e.g., hearing aids, limbs for thalidomide victims.
Bio-informatics : Covers fields such as the use of computers in protein engineering, software for DNA sequence analysis, automated DNA synthesizers, automated process control etc.
Bioprocessing : Involves conversion of a raw material substrate into a product using microbial fermentation or enzymes.
Biosynthesis : The method of synthesis of complex molecules within the living organism.
Biotechnology : The application of engineering and technological principles to the life sciences.
Callus (Tissue) : A hard tissue that forms over a damaged plant surface.
Catalyst : A chemical that alters the rate of a chemical reaction and may be recovered essentially unaltered in form and amount at the end of the reaction.
Cell Culture : The in-vitro growth of cells usually isolated from a mixture of organisms.
Cellulase : The enzyme that digests cellulose to sugars.
Chimera : An organism or a part made up of tissues or cells exhibiting the admixture of cell populations from more than one zygote.
Chymosin (Renin) : An enzyme found in the gastric juice of the fourth stomach of calf, used for coagulating milk casein (albuminous content of milk) in cheese making.
Culture : Experimental growth of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi in a nutrient substance.
Cytomines : Division of cytoplasm (protoplasm excluding nucleus) of a cell occurring at the end of mitosis.
Cytosine : A white crystalline, pyrimidine, used in the study of metabolism.
Diagnostics (in-vitro) : Diagnostic kits and systems for use on tissue or fluid samples in the laboratory.
Diagnostics (in-vivo) : Diagnostic technology from within the body such as monoclonal antibody-based visualisation of cancer cells.
Embryogenesis : The formation and development of an embryo.
Erythroponetin (EPO) : A hormone thought to be produced by the kidneys, that regulates formation of red blood cells. It may have therapeutic uses in treating anaemia in patients with chronic kidney disease.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) : A species of bacterium which lives in the intestinal tract of a man and other vertebrates. It is widely used as a host for recombinant DNA.
Factor VIII : Antihemophilic factor. A soluble protein clotting factor in mammalian blood.
Fermentation : An enzymatic transformation of organic substrates especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of gas; physiological counterpart of oxidation permitting certain organisms to live and grow in the absence of air. Used in various industrial processes for manufacture of products such as alcohols, acids and cheese.
Gene : Gene is the unit of heredity, transmitted in the chromosome that controls the development of a hereditary character. It is capable of replication and mutation, occupying a fixed position on a chromosome and transmitted from parent to offspring during reproduction.
Genetic Code : The order in which the nitrogenous bases of DNA are arranged in the molecule which determines the type and amount of protein synthesised in the cell. The four bases are acting as a unit which specifies a particular amino acid.
Genetic Engineering (also known as Recombinant DNA) : The construction and manipulation of hybrid DNA to introduce genes coding for desired protein into specific organisms.
Genome : The complement of haploid chromosomes contained in a single gamete or nucleus.
Gibberellins : Any member of a family of naturally derived compounds which have a broad spectrum of biological activity but are noted as plant growth regulators.
Growth Hormone : A short segment of protein involved in the regulation of growth. Secretions of endocrine glands having growth promoting properties e.g. pituitary growth hormone, in plants called auxins.
Guanne : A colourless solid used chiefly in biochemical research.
Hybrid : The offspring of genetically dissimilar parents.
Hybridoma Technology : The use of hybridomas (product of fusion between myeloma cell, which divides continuously in culture and is immortal, and lymphocyte-antibody producing cell); the resulting cells grows in culture and produces monoclonal antibodies.
Hydrophonics : A method of cultivating plants by growing them in gravel etc. through which water containing dissolved inorganic nutrient salt is pumped.
Interleukin (II) : A type of immunomodulator which is being tested to anti-cancer effects. It stimulates T-cell growth in-vivo.
In vitro : Literally, in glass; pertaining to a biological reaction taking place in a living cell or organism. In-vitro products are used within the body.
In vivo : Literally, in life, pertaining to a biological reaction taking place in a living cell or organism. In vivo products are used within the body.
Isomerase : An enzyme that catalyses isomerization reactions (a process whereby a compound is changed into an isomer; for example, conversion of butane into isobutane).
Josephson Junction : If two superconductors were weakly coupled, one could have current through such a junction without drop in voltage.
Leaching : The removal of a soluble compound such as an ore from a solid mixture by washing or percolating.
Lymphocytes : Specialised white blood cells involved in the immune response; B lymphocytes produce antibodies.
Lymphokines : Proteins that mediate interaction among lymphocytes and are vital to proper immune function.
Lysine : An essential, basic amino acid (obtained from many proteins by hydrolysis).
Metabolite : A product of intermediary metabolism.
Microbe : A micro-organism, especially a bacterium of a pathogenic nature (disease producing bacterium). It can be seen with the aid of a microscope.
Micro-organism : A microscopic plant or animal as a bacterium or protozoan.
Molecular Engineering : The use of solid state techniques to build, in extremely small volumes the components necessary to provide the functional requirements of overall equipments which when handled in more conventional ways are vastly bulkier.
Monoclonal Antibodies (Mabs) : A highly specific type of antibody produced by a single clone of cells which can recognize only one antigenic site/chemical structure. MAbs are useful in a variety of industrial and medical capacities since they are easily produced in large quantities and have a remarkable specificity.
Myeloma : Antibody producing tumour cells usually in the marrow of several bones.
Nitrogen Fixation : The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas to a chemicals combined form, ammonia which is esential to growth. Only a limited number of micro organisms can fix nitrogen.
Nucleic Acids : Macromolecule (Big molecules) composed of sequences of nucleotid bases. There are two kinds of nucleic acid: DNA, which contains sugar deoxyribose and RNA which contains the sugar ribose. Nucleic acids play a central role in protein synthesis and in the transmission hereditary characteristic.
Oncogene : A gene that causes cancer in an animal. Two or more types of oncogenes may need to co-operate to turn a cell cancerous.
Parthenogenesis : A special type of reproduction in which an egg develops without entrance of a sperm; common among rotifers, thrips, ants, bees and wasps.
Pectin : A purified carbohydrate obtained from the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits, or from apple pomace.
Pectinase : An enzyme that catalyses the transformation of pectin into sugars and galacturonic acid.
Peptides : Peptides are substances resulting from the breakdown of proteins. A compound of two or more amino acids.
Pheromones : A hormonal substance secreted by certain animals such as insects and stimulating a behavioural response from an individual of the same species.
Photorespiration : Reaction in plants that competes with the photosynthetic process. Instead of fixing CO2, Rubpase (ribulosebiphosphate carboxylase) can utilise oxygen, which results in a net loss of fixed CO2.
Plasmid : An extrachromosomal genetic element found among various strains of E. coli and other bacteria.
Polysaccharides : A group of complex carbohydrates such as starch, cellulose ec. They may be regarded as derived from molecules of water.
Powdery Mildew : A fungus characterized by production of abundant powdery conidia on the host, a member of family Erysiphaceae or the genus of oidium. A plant disease caused by powdery mildew fungus.
Protein Engineering : The study of the relationship of protein structure and function with a view to designing proteins with specific characteristics.
Protoplast Fusion : The joining of two cells in the laboratory to achieve desired results; such as increased visibility or antibiotic-producing cells.
Recombinant DNA : (See Genetic Engineering).
Somatic : Of the body, as distinguished from the mind.
Strains : A group of organisms of the same species having distinctive characteristics but not usually considered a separate breed or variety.
Therapeutics : Pharmaceutical products used in the treatment of diseases.
Tissue Culture : Growth of tissue cells in artificial media.
Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) : A substance which causes activation of plasmin which is involved in the breakdown of blood clots, that cause heart attacks and strokes.
Tumour Necrosis Factor : A macrophage produced protein which exhibits in-vitro and in-vivo killing of tumour cells. It has about 30 per cent homology of amino acid sequence with lymphotoxin.
Urokinase : A thrombolytic enzyme involved in breakdown of blood clots. It occurs in human urine.
Vaccine : A preparation of any micro-organism or virus for introduction into the body in order to stimulate the production of antibodies to the micro-organisms introduced, in order to confer immunity against any subsequent infection by the same type of micro-organism.
Vectors : DNA molecule used to introduce foreign DNA into host cells. Vectors include plasmids, virus and other forms of DNA. A vector must be capable of replicating autonomously and must have cloning sites for the introduction of foreign DNA.
Virus : These are the submicroscopic infectious agent, smaller than bacteria, capable of passing through filters that will retain bacteria and multiplying only within a living susceptible host cell. Viruses differ from all other living entitles by possessing only one kind of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. RNA-containing viruses differ from all other living entities in that their RNA serves as genetic material because it not only stores genetic information but is multiplied by identical reduplication similar to DNA.
Vitamin (Vita = Life) : An organic compound present in variable minute quantities in natural foodstuffs and essential for the normal processes of growth and maintenance of the body. Vitamins do not furnish energy but are essential for energy transformation and regulation of metabolism.
Xanthum Gum : A high molecular weight, water soluble natural gum; produced by pure culture fermentation of glucose with Xanthomonas campestris.
Zymogen : The inactive precursor of an enzyme. A non-catalytic substance formed by plants and animals as a stage in the development of an enzyme. Also called pro-enzyme.
Some Facts about Biotechnology
1. Biotechnology has emerged as a new discipline in 1970.
2. Leeds City Council in U.K. established the institute of biotechnology for the first time in 1920.
3. In 1982 Indian government set up. The National Biotechnology Board (NBTB).
4. In 1986 NBTB had become full fledged Department of biotechnology (DBT).
5. International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) has two centres—(1) New Delhi, (2) Trieste (Italy).
6. Part of DNA of one chromosome replaced by the other chromosomal DNA forms recombinant DNA.
7. The true copy of mRNA is called DNA.
8. Plasmids are the extra chromosomal, self replicating and double stranded closed and circular DNA molecules present in the bacterium.
9. pBR322 is a cloning vector constructed from the plasmids of E. coli.
10. Bacteriophage is a virus which acts upon bacteria.
11. Pre-grown desirable micro-organism is called inoculum.
12. A single type of antibody which is specific for a specific antigen is called monoclonal antibodies.
13. Our blood produces polyclonal antibodies.
14. Production of hybrid cells by using B-lymphocytes and tumour cells is called hybridoma.
15. ‘T’ lymphocytes do not produce antibodies. They produce lymphokines which attract the neutrophils to destroy antigens.
16. ‘B’ lymphocytes produce antibodies or immunoglobulins.
17. Monoclonal antibodies are used to diagnose blood groups, cancer, pregnancy, viral diseases.
18. Monoclonal antibodies are used to treat tumours.
19. Vaccines provide health to all.
20. Vaccines are the chemicals prepared from proteins (antigens).
21. Diabetes mellitus is caused due to the deficiency of insulin.
22. Toxic metabolites are antibiotics.
23. There are four major groups of antibiotics—1. Penicillins 2. Cephalospoins 3. Tetracyclins 4. Erythromycins.
24. Alexander Flemming (1929) coined the name penicillin.
25. The significance of penicillin was realised at the time of World War-II.
26. American gave high priority to antibiotic production.
27. Enzymes are biocatalysts.
28. Enzymes produced through microbes are used to control cancerous growth.
29. Enzymes are used to analyse the purity and activity of the antibodies.
30. For cutting the DNA molecule, enzymes are used.
31. Microbe synthesised enzymes are used in leather industry, dairy industry, in the production of detergents.
32. Fermentation of sugars by micro-organisms was first demonstrated by Louis Pasteur.
33. In aerobic condition biomass of the yeast increases.
34. In anaerobic condition fermentation increases.
35. Oxygen suppresses the fermentation. This is referred to as Pasteur’s effect.
36. ‘Sarcina ventriculi’ is the only bacterium that produces ethanol through fructose-1-6-diphosphate pathway.
37. In India ethanol is produced mainly by fermentation of molasses.
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